Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in
Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like
existence,
reason,
knowledge,
value,
mind, and
language. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its own methods and assumptions.
Historically, many of the individual
sciences, such as
physics and
psychology, formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in the
history of philosophy include
Western,
Arabic–Persian,
Indian, and
Chinese philosophy. Western philosophy originated in
Ancient Greece and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic–Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and
revelation. Indian philosophy combines the
spiritual problem of how to reach
enlightenment with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues in relation to right social conduct, government, and
self-cultivation.
Zhang Heng began his career as a minor civil servant in
Nanyang. Eventually, he became Chief Astronomer, Prefect of the Majors for Official Carriages, and then Palace Attendant at the imperial court. His uncompromising stance on historical and calendrical issues led to his becoming a controversial figure, preventing him from rising to the status of Grand Historian. His political rivalry with the palace
eunuchs during the reign of
Emperor Shun (r. 125–144) led to his decision to retire from the central court to serve as an administrator of
Hejian Kingdom in present-day
Hebei. Zhang returned home to Nanyang for a short time, before being recalled to serve in the capital once more in 138. He died there a year later, in 139. (Full article...)
Bohr developed the
Bohr model of the
atom, in which he proposed that energy levels of
electrons are discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around the
atomic nucleus but can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle of
complementarity: that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as a
wave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy. (Full article...)
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1897 illustration of La Peau de chagrin, drawn by
Adrien Moreau and published by George Barrie & Son
La Peau de chagrin (French pronunciation:[lapodəʃaɡʁɛ̃], The Skin of Shagreen), known in English as The Magic Skin and The Wild Ass's Skin, is an
1831novel by
French novelist and playwright
Honoré de Balzac (1799–1850). Set in early 19th-century
Paris, it tells the story of a young man who finds a magic piece of
shagreen (untanned skin from a
wild ass) that fulfills his every desire. For each wish granted, however, the skin shrinks and consumes a portion of his physical energy. La Peau de chagrin belongs to the Études philosophiques group of Balzac's
sequence of novels, La Comédie humaine.
Before the book was completed, Balzac created excitement about it by publishing a series of articles and story fragments in several Parisian journals. Although he was five months late in delivering the manuscript, he succeeded in generating sufficient interest that the novel sold out instantly upon its publication. A second edition, which included a series of twelve other "philosophical tales", was released one month later. (Full article...)
Wollstonecraft attacked not only hereditary privilege, but also the rhetoric that Burke used to defend it. Most of Burke's detractors deplored what they viewed as his theatrical pity for
Marie Antoinette, but Wollstonecraft was unique in her love of Burke's gendered language. By saying the sublime and the beautiful, terms first established by Burke himself in A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1756), she kept his rhetoric as well as his argument. In her first unabashedly feminist critique, which Wollstonecraft scholar
Claudia Johnson describes as unsurpassed in its argumentative force, Wollstonecraft indicts Burke's justification of an equal society founded on the passivity of women. (Full article...)
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First edition title page
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects (1792), written by British philosopher and women's rights advocate
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797), is one of the earliest works of
feminist philosophy. In it, Wollstonecraft responds to those educational and political theorists of the eighteenth century who did not believe women should receive a rational education. She argues that women ought to have an education commensurate with their position in society, claiming that women are essential to the nation because they educate its children and because they could be "companions" to their husbands, rather than mere wives. Instead of viewing women as ornaments to society or property to be traded in marriage, Wollstonecraft maintains that they are human beings deserving of the same fundamental rights as men.
Wollstonecraft was prompted to write the Rights of Woman after reading
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord's 1791 report to the French
National Assembly, which stated that women should only receive domestic education. From her reaction to this specific event, she launched a broad attack against double standards, indicting men for encouraging women to indulge in excessive emotion. Wollstonecraft hurried to complete the work in direct response to ongoing events; she intended to write a more thoughtful second volume but died before completing it. (Full article...)
Priestley is credited with his independent discovery of
oxygen by the thermal decomposition of mercuric oxide, having isolated it in 1774. During his lifetime, Priestley's considerable scientific reputation rested on his invention of
carbonated water, his writings on
electricity, and his discovery of several "airs" (gases), the most famous being what Priestley dubbed "dephlogisticated air" (oxygen). Priestley's determination to defend
phlogiston theory and to reject what would become the
chemical revolution eventually left him isolated within the scientific community. (Full article...)
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Wollstonecraft
c. 1797
Mary Wollstonecraft (/ˈwʊlstənkræft/, also
UK: /-krɑːft/; 27 April 1759 – 10 September 1797) was a British writer, philosopher, and advocate of
women's rights. Until the late 20th century, Wollstonecraft's life, which encompassed several unconventional (at the time) personal relationships, received more attention than her writing. Wollstonecraft is regarded as one of the founding
feminist philosophers, and feminists often cite both her life and her works as important influences.
During her brief career she wrote novels, treatises, a
travel narrative, a history of the
French Revolution, a
conduct book, and a children's book. Wollstonecraft is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a
social order founded on reason. (Full article...)
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Political Animals and Animal Politics is a 2014
edited collection published by
Palgrave Macmillan and edited by the
greenpolitical theoristsMarcel Wissenburg and
David Schlosberg. The work addresses the emergence of academic
animal ethics informed by
political philosophy as opposed to
moral philosophy. It was the first edited collection to be published on the topic, and the first book-length attempt to explore the breadth and boundaries of the literature. As well as a substantial introduction by the editors, it features ten sole-authored chapters split over three parts, respectively concerning
institutional change for animals, the relationship between animal ethics and
ecologism, and real-world laws made for the benefit of animals. The book's contributors were Wissenburg, Schlosberg, Manuel Arias-Maldonado, Chad Flanders, Christie Smith, Clemens Driessen, Simon Otjes, Kurtis Boyer, Per-Anders Svärd, and Mihnea Tanasescu. The focus of their individual chapters varies, but recurring features include discussions of
human exceptionalism, exploration of ways that animal issues are or could be present in political discourse, and reflections on the relationship between theory and practice in politics.
Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a
seminary school in
Graz, where he became an associate of
Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg. Later he became an assistant to the astronomer
Tycho Brahe in
Prague, and eventually the imperial mathematician to
Emperor Rudolf II and his two successors
Matthias and
Ferdinand II. He also taught mathematics in
Linz, and was an adviser to
General Wallenstein. Additionally, he did fundamental work in the field of
optics, being named the father of modern optics, in particular for his Astronomiae pars optica. He also invented an improved version of the
refracting telescope, the Keplerian telescope, which became the foundation of the modern refracting telescope, while also improving on the telescope design by
Galileo Galilei, who mentioned Kepler's discoveries in his work. (Full article...)
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In
political philosophy, a throffer is a proposal (also called an intervention) that mixes an offer with a threat which will be carried out if the offer is not accepted. The term was first used in print by political philosopher
Hillel Steiner; while other writers followed, it has not been universally adopted and it is sometimes considered synonymous with carrot and stick. Though the threatening aspect of a throffer need not be obvious, or even articulated at all, an overt example is: "Kill this man and receive £100; fail to kill him and I'll kill you."
Steiner differentiated offers, threats and throffers based on the preferability of compliance and noncompliance for the subject when compared to the normal course of events that would have come about were no intervention made. Steiner's account was criticised by philosopher Robert Stevens, who instead suggested that what was important in differentiating the kinds of intervention was whether performing or not performing the requested action was more or less preferable than it would have been were no intervention made. Throffers form part of the wider moral and political considerations of
coercion, and form part of the question of the possibility of
coercive offers. Contrary to received wisdom that only threats can be coercive, throffers lacking explicit threats have been cited as an example of coercive offers, while some writers argue that offers, threats and throffers may all be coercive if certain conditions are met. For others, by contrast, if a throffer is coercive, it is explicitly the threat aspect that makes it so, and not all throffers can be considered coercive. (Full article...)
It has been discussed in the context of
ontology,
existentialism, and skepticism; it has also been used in Christian religious education classes to initiate discussion about angels, science, and faith. (Full article...)
A member of marginalized religious groups throughout his life and a proponent of what was called "rational Dissent," Priestley advocated
religious toleration and equal rights for
Dissenters. He argued for extensive civil rights in works such as the important Essay on the First Principles of Government, believing that individuals could bring about progress and eventually the
Millennium; he was the foremost British expounder of
providentialism. Priestley also made significant contributions to education, publishing, among other things, The Rudiments of English Grammar, a seminal work on
English grammar. In his most lasting contributions to education, he argued for the benefits of a
liberal arts education and of the value of the study of
modern history. In his metaphysical works, Priestley "attempt[ed] to combine theism, materialism, and determinism," a project that has been called "audacious and original." (Full article...)
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Sir Bernard Arthur Owen Williams,
FBA (21 September 1929 – 10 June 2003) was an English
moral philosopher. His publications include Problems of the Self (1973), Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy (1985), Shame and Necessity (1993), and Truth and Truthfulness (2002). He was knighted in 1999.
... that in his book How to Be Perfect,
Michael Schur sought to "wade into some deeply confusing and painful applications of moral philosophy ... but in a fun way"?
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Albans, was an
Englishphilosopher,
statesman and
essayist but is best known for leading the scientific revolution with his new 'observation and experimentation' theory which is the way science has been conducted ever since. He was knighted in 1603, created Baron Verulam in 1618, and created Viscount St Albans in 1621; though both
peerage titles became extinct upon his death. Bacon did not propose an actual philosophy, but rather a method of developing philosophy; he wrote that, whilst philosophy at the time used the deductive syllogism to interpret nature, the philosopher should instead proceed through inductive reasoning from
fact to
axiom to
law.
He began his professional life as a lawyer, but he has become best known as a philosophical advocate and defender of the
scientific revolution. His works establish and popularize an inductive methodology for
scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method.
Induction implies drawing knowledge from the natural world through
experimentation,
observation, and testing of
hypotheses. In the context of his time, such methods were connected with the
occult trends of
hermeticism and
alchemy.
In its judgment, the ICJ adopted the ICTY's conclusion from
Radislav Krstić's conviction and concluded what happened in and around
Srebrenica was done by members of the
Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) "with the specific intent to destroy in part the group of the Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina as such, which constitute acts of genocide committed". The two international courts have ruled differently only concerning direct responsibility for acts of genocide in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The ICJ, in a proceeding of
Bosnian genocide case that was brought by Bosnia and Herzegovina against
Serbia and Montenegro, has made rulings to the extent that Serbia was not directly responsible for the perpetration of genocide but was responsible under "customary international law" for violating the obligation to "prevent and punish the crime of genocide". Other international bodies, such as the
European Court of Human Rights and the
United Nations General Assembly, have also passed resolutions acknowledging genocide occurred in Bosnia. German courts have made convictions based upon a more expansive interpretation of genocide than that used by international courts. (Full article...)
His best-known work is the Visuddhimagga ("Path of Purification"), a comprehensive summary of older
Sinhala commentaries on
Theravada teachings and practices. According to Sarah Shaw, in Theravada this systematic work is "the principal text on the subject of
meditation." The interpretations provided by Buddhaghosa have generally constituted the orthodox understanding of Theravada scriptures since at least the 12th century CE. (Full article...)
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Rand in 1943
Alice O'Connor (born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum; February 2 [
O.S. January 20], 1905 – March 6, 1982), better known by her pen name Ayn Rand (/aɪn/), was a Russian-born American author and philosopher. She is known for her fiction and for developing a philosophical system she named
Objectivism. Born and educated in Russia, she moved to the United States in 1926. After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful and two
Broadway plays, Rand achieved fame with her 1943 novel The Fountainhead. In 1957, she published her best-selling work, the novel Atlas Shrugged. Afterward, until her death in 1982, she turned to non-fiction to promote her philosophy, publishing her own
periodicals and releasing several collections of essays.
The first seventy-seven of these essays were published serially in the Independent Journal, the New York Packet, and The Daily Advertiser between October 1787 and April 1788. A compilation of these 77 essays and eight others were published in two volumes as The Federalist: A Collection of Essays, Written in Favour of the New Constitution, as Agreed upon by the Federal Convention, September 17, 1787, by publishing firm J. & A. McLean in March and May 1788. The last eight papers (Nos. 78–85) were
republished in the New York newspapers between June 14 and August 16, 1788. (Full article...)
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Florian Witold Znaniecki (15 January 1882 – 23 March 1958) was a Polish and American
philosopher and
sociologist who taught and wrote in
Poland and in the
United States. Over the course of his work, he shifted his focus from philosophy to sociology. He remains a major figure in the history of Polish and American sociology; the founder of Polish academic sociology, and of an entire
school of thought in sociology.
William of Tyre writing his history, from a 13th-century
Old French translation,
Bibliothèque Nationale,
Paris, MS 2631, f.1r The
historiography of the
Crusades is the study of history-writing and the written history, especially as an academic discipline, regarding the military expeditions initially undertaken by European Christians in the 11th, 12th, or 13thcenturies to the
Holy Land. This scope was later extended to include other campaigns initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Roman Catholic Church. The subject has involved competing and evolving interpretations since the capture of Jerusalem in 1099 until the present day. The religious idealism, use of martial force and pragmatic compromises made by those involved in crusading were controversial, both at the time and subsequently. Crusading was integral to Western European culture, with the ideas that shaped behaviour in the
Late Middle Ages retaining currency beyond the 15thcentury in attitude rather than action.
From the 17thcentury historians began rejecting the religious motivations applied to crusading and instead examined the secular. The building of nation states led to the application of interpretations in support of this and fundamentally discrete from the religious sphere. This presented a challenge in reconciling the idealistic and the materialistic motives of the protagonists. The internationalism of crusading remained an obstacle to those historians wishing to project both the idea of crusading and the Crusades themselves as nationalistic precedents.
Enlightenment thinkers considered the crusaders culturally inferior to themselves and
Protestants considered them morally so. (Full article...)
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The tempest of lust, with Minos in the distance, as illustrated by
Stradanus
The second circle of hell is depicted in
Dante Alighieri's 14th-century poem Inferno, the first part of the Divine Comedy. Inferno tells the story of Dante's journey through a vision of the
Christian hell ordered into nine circles corresponding to classifications of sin; the second circle represents the sin of
lust, where the lustful are punished by being buffeted within an endless tempest.
The circle of lust introduces Dante's depiction of King
Minos, the judge of hell; this portrayal derives from the role of Minos in the
Greek underworld in the works of
Virgil and
Homer. Dante also depicts a number of historical and mythological figures within the second circle, although chief among these are
Francesca da Rimini and
Paolo Malatesta, murdered lovers whose story was well-known in Dante's time. Malatesta and da Rimini have since been the focus of academic interpretation and the inspiration for other works of art. (Full article...)
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Winkler County, Texas The Winkler County nurse whistleblower case was a series of legal proceedings in
West Texas concerning the retaliation against two nurses who submitted an anonymous state medical board complaint against a physician in 2009. The case attracted national attention for its implications on
whistleblowing by nurses.
After witnessing what they believed to be unsafe medical care, nurses Anne Mitchell and Vicki Galle submitted an anonymous complaint against Dr. Rolando Arafiles to the
Texas Medical Board (TMB). When he learned of the complaint, Arafiles spoke with the sheriff of
Winkler County, alleging that the nurses' reports to the medical board constituted harassment. The sheriff investigated and obtained the TMB complaint, which provided enough information that Galle and Mitchell could be identified as the sources of the complaint. Galle and Mitchell were terminated from the hospital and faced criminal charges of misuse of official information. Galle's charges were dropped before trial and Mitchell was acquitted by a jury. In the aftermath of Mitchell's trial, Arafiles, several county officials and a hospital administrator all faced jail time for their roles in the retaliation against the nurses. (Full article...)
Once Latin translations of Averroes's works became available in the 13th century, this theory was taken up and expanded by
Averroists in the Christian West, such as
Siger of Brabant (
c. 1240 –
c. 1284),
John of Jandun (
c. 1285 – 1328) and
John Baconthorpe (
c. 1290 – 1347). It also influenced the secularist political philosophy of
Dante Alighieri (
c. 1265 – 1321) in the fourteenth century. However, it was rejected by other philosophers—including
Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274), who wrote a detailed critique—and Averroes received condemnation from
Catholic Church authorities. In modern times, the theory is no longer seen as tenable; historian of philosophy
Peter Adamson regards it as a product of Averroes's time. (Full article...)
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A Jewish woman chased by men and youth during the pogrom
The Lviv pogroms were the consecutive
pogroms and massacres of Jews in June and July 1941 in the city of Lwów in German-occupied
Eastern Poland/
Western Ukraine (now
Lviv, Ukraine). The massacres were perpetrated by Ukrainian nationalists (specifically, the
OUN), German death squads (Einsatzgruppen), and urban population from 30 June to 2 July, and from 25 to 29 July, during the
German invasion of the Soviet Union. Thousands of Jews were killed both in the pogroms and in the Einsatzgruppen killings.
Ukrainian militia as well as Ukrainian residents and to a lower degree Poles targeted Jews in the first pogrom, which was triggered by the discovery of thousands of bodies in three Lviv prisons of victims of the Soviet
NKVD prisoner massacres, which were widely blamed on "Jewish Bolsheviks". The subsequent massacres were directed by the Germans in the context of
the Holocaust in Eastern Europe. The pogroms have been widely debated in the historiography, including the extent to which Ukrainian nationalists played a central or complicit role. (Full article...)
Image 2The Buddhist
Nalanda university and monastery was a major center of learning in India from the 5th century CE to c. 1200. (from Eastern philosophy)
Image 22The philosopher
Pyrrho of
Elis, in an anecdote taken from
Sextus Empiricus' Outlines of Pyrrhonism
(upper)PIRRHO • HELIENSIS • PLISTARCHI • FILIVS translation (from Latin): Pyrrho • Greek • Son of Plistarchus
(middle)OPORTERE • SAPIENTEM HANC ILLIVS IMITARI SECVRITATEMtranslation (from Latin): It is right wisdom then that all imitate this security (Pyrrho pointing at a peaceful pig munching his food)
(lower)Whoever wants to apply the real wisdom, shall not mind
trepidation and misery
Image 1The center third of Education (1890), a stained glass window by
Louis Comfort Tiffany and Tiffany Studios, located in Linsly-Chittenden Hall at
Yale University. It depicts
Science (personified by Devotion, Labor, Truth, Research and Intuition) and
Religion (personified by Purity, Faith, Hope, Reverence and Inspiration) in harmony, presided over by the central personification of "Light·Love·Life".
Image 5Oscar Wilde reclining with Poems, by
Napoleon Sarony, in New York in 1882. Wilde often liked to appear idle, though in fact he worked hard; by the late 1880s he was a father, an editor, and a writer.
Philosophy ponders the most fundamental questions humankind has been able to ask. These are increasingly numerous and over time they have been arranged into the overlapping branches of the philosophy tree:
Aesthetics: What is art? What is beauty? Is there a standard of taste? Is art meaningful? If so, what does it mean? What is good art? Is art for the purpose of an end, or is "art for art's sake?" What connects us to art? How does art affect us? Is some art unethical? Can art corrupt or elevate societies?
Epistemology: What are the nature and limits of knowledge? What is more fundamental to human existence, knowing (epistemology) or being (ontology)? How do we come to know what we know? What are the limits and scope of knowledge? How can we know that there are other minds (if we can)? How can we know that there is an external world (if we can)? How can we prove our answers? What is a true statement?
Ethics: Is there a difference between ethically right and wrong actions (or values, or institutions)? If so, what is that difference? Which actions are right, and which wrong? Do divine commands make right acts right, or is their rightness based on something else? Are there standards of rightness that are absolute, or are all such standards relative to particular cultures? How should I live? What is happiness?
Logic: What makes a good argument? How can I think critically about complicated arguments? What makes for good thinking? When can I say that something just does not make sense? Where is the origin of logic?
Metaphysics: What sorts of things exist? What is the nature of those things? Do some things exist independently of our perception? What is the nature of space and time? What is the relationship of the mind to the body? What is it to be a person? What is it to be conscious? Do gods exist?
Political philosophy: Are political institutions and their exercise of power justified? What is justice? Is there a 'proper' role and scope of government? Is democracy the best form of governance? Is governance ethically justifiable? Should a state be allowed? Should a state be able to promote the norms and values of a certain moral or religious doctrine? Are states allowed to go to war? Do states have duties against inhabitants of other states?
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Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, 1695 (from Western philosophy)
The Buddhist Nalanda university and monastery was a major center of learning in India from the 5th century CE to c. 1200. (from Eastern philosophy)
The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, embroidery, 1860–1880 (from Eastern philosophy)
Xiong Shili circa 1960 (from Eastern philosophy)
Portrait by Philippe de Champaigne, 17th century (from Medieval philosophy)
Four Greek philosophers: Socrates, Antisthenes, Chrysippos, Epicurus; British Museum (from Ancient Greek philosophy)
From left to right: Virchand Gandhi, Anagarika Dharmapala, Swami Vivekananda, G. Bonet Maury. Parliament of World Religions, 1893 (from Eastern philosophy)
Sigmund Freud by Max Halberstadt, c. 1921 (from Western philosophy)
Patricia Churchland, 2005 (from Western philosophy)
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, steel engraving, after 1828 (from Western philosophy)
The philosopher Pyrrho of Elis, in an anecdote taken from Sextus Empiricus' Outlines of Pyrrhonism(upper)PIRRHO • HELIENSIS •
William James in 1906 (from Western philosophy)
Avicenna (from Medieval philosophy)
Confucius (from Eastern philosophy)
Edmund Husserl, in the 1910s (from Western philosophy)
Erasmus is Credited as the Prince of the Humanists (from Western philosophy)
Fukuzawa Yukichi (1862) a key civil rights activist and liberal thinker (from Eastern philosophy)
Map of Alexander the Great's empire and the route he and Pyrrho of Elis took to India (from Western philosophy)
Bust of Socrates, Roman copy after a Greek original from the 4th century BCE (from Western philosophy)
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The center third of Education (1890), a stained glass window by Louis Comfort Tiffany and Tiffany Studios, located in Linsly-Chittenden Hall at Yale University. It depicts Science (personified by Devotion, Labor, Truth, Research and Intuition) and Religion (personified by Purity, Faith, Hope, Reverence and Inspiration) in harmony, presided over by the central personification of "Light·Love·Life".
Umberto Eco OMRI (1932–2016) was an Italian novelist, literary critic, philosopher, semiotician, and university professor. He is widely known for his 1980 novel Il nome della rosa ( The Name of the Rose), a historical mystery combining semiotics in fiction with biblical analysis, medieval studies, and literary theory.
![Image 4Adam Smith (baptised 16 June 1723 – died 17 July 1790 [OS: 5 June 1723 – 17 July 1790]) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economics. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png/92px-Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png)
Adam Smith ( baptised 16 June 1723 – died 17 July 1790 [ OS: 5 June 1723 – 17 July 1790]) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economics. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics.
Oscar Wilde reclining with Poems, by Napoleon Sarony, in New York in 1882. Wilde often liked to appear idle, though in fact he worked hard; by the late 1880s he was a father, an editor, and a writer.
Voltairine de Cleyre (1866–1912) was an American anarchist known for being a prolific writer and speaker who opposed state power, the capitalism she saw as interconnected with it, and marriage, and the domination of religion over sexuality and women's lives. She is often characterized as a major early feminist because of her views.
The House Builders (Portraits of Sir W.E. & The Hon. Lady Welby-Gregory), an 1880 painting by Frank Dicksee
Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms.
Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805) was a German poet, philosopher, physician, historian and playwright.
Jane Addams (1860–1935) was an American settlement activist, reformer, social worker, sociologist, public administrator and author. She was a notable figure in the history of social work and women's suffrage in the United States and an advocate for world peace.
Painting of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz by Christoph Bernhard Francke, Braunschweig, Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum, 1700.
The statue of Immanuel Kant in front of the Immanuel Kant State University of Russia in Kaliningrad. The statue was made by notable sculptor Christian Daniel Rauch and unveiled in 1864. The statue was destroyed in 1945, but was remoulded in 1992 on the initiative of Marion Dönhoff.
Niels Bohr (1885–1962) was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research.
Philosophy, an 1896 mural by Robert Lewis Reid in the North Corridor on the Second Floor of the Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.. The caption underneath reads: "HOW CHARMING IS DIVINE PHILOSOPHY."
Leo Tolstoy in 1897. Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy was a Russian writer who is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time.
Carl von Linné, Alexander Roslin, 1775 (oil on canvas, Gripsholm Castle). Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern taxonomy".
Lady Dorothy Browne and Sir Thomas Browne is an oil on panel painting attributed to the English artist Joan Carlile, and probably completed between 1641 and 1650. The painting depicts English physician Thomas Browne and his wife Dorothy..JPG)
![Image 4Adam Smith (baptised 16 June 1723 – died 17 July 1790 [OS: 5 June 1723 – 17 July 1790]) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economics. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics.](/info/en/?search=File:Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png)
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