Carbon is capable of forming many
allotropes (structurally different forms of the same element) due to its
valency (
tetravalent). Well-known forms of carbon include
diamond and
graphite. In recent decades, many more allotropes have been discovered and researched, including ball shapes such as
buckminsterfullerene and sheets such as
graphene. Larger-scale structures of carbon include
nanotubes,
nanobuds and
nanoribbons. Other unusual forms of carbon exist at very high temperatures or extreme pressures. Around 500 hypothetical 3‑periodic allotropes of carbon are known at the present time, according to the Samara Carbon Allotrope Database (SACADA).[1]
Under certain conditions, carbon can be found in its atomic form. It can be formed by vaporizing graphite, by passing large electric currents to form a
carbon arc under very low pressure. It is extremely reactive, but it is an intermediate product used in the creation of
carbenes.[2]
Diamond is a well-known allotrope of carbon. The
hardness, extremely high
refractive index, and high
dispersion of light make diamond useful for industrial applications and for jewelry. Diamond is the hardest known natural
mineral. This makes it an excellent abrasive and makes it hold polish and luster extremely well. No known naturally occurring substance can cut or scratch diamond, except another diamond. In diamond form, carbon is one of the costliest elements.
The crystal structure of diamond is a
face-centered cubic lattice having eight atoms per unit cell to form a
diamond cubic structure. Each carbon atom is
covalently bonded to four other carbons in a
tetrahedral geometry. These tetrahedrons together form a 3-dimensional network of six-membered carbon rings in the
chair conformation, allowing for zero
bond angle strain. The bonding occurs through sp3hybridized orbitals to give a C-C bond length of 154
pm. This network of unstrained covalent bonds makes diamond extremely strong. Diamond is thermodynamically less stable than graphite at pressures below 1.7
GPa.[5][6][7]
The dominant industrial use of diamond is
cutting,
drilling (
drill bits),
grinding (diamond edged cutters), and polishing. Most uses of diamonds in these technologies do not require large diamonds, and most diamonds that are not gem-quality can find an industrial use. Diamonds are embedded in drill tips and saw blades or ground into a powder for use in grinding and polishing applications (due to its extraordinary hardness). Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high pressure experiments (see
diamond anvil), high-performance
bearings, and specialized
windows of technical apparatuses.
The market for industrial-grade diamonds operates much differently from its gem-grade counterpart. Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity, making many of the
gemological characteristics of diamond, including clarity and color, mostly irrelevant. This helps explain why 80% of mined diamonds (equal to about 100 million
carats or 20
tonnes annually) are unsuitable for use as gemstones and known as bort, are destined for industrial use. In addition to mined diamonds,
synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s; another 400 million carats (80 tonnes) of synthetic diamonds are produced annually for industrial use, which is nearly four times the mass of natural diamonds mined over the same period.
With the continuing advances being made in the production of synthetic diamond, future applications are beginning to become feasible. Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as a
semiconductor suitable to build
microchips from, or the use of diamond as a
heat sink in
electronics. Significant research efforts in
Japan,
Europe, and the
United States are under way to capitalize on the potential offered by diamond's unique material properties, combined with increased quality and quantity of supply starting to become available from synthetic diamond manufacturers.[citation needed]
Graphite, named by
Abraham Gottlob Werner in 1789, from the Greek γράφειν (graphein, "to draw/write", for its use in pencils) is one of the most common allotropes of carbon. Unlike diamond, graphite is an electrical conductor. Thus, it can be used in, for instance, electrical arc lamp electrodes. Likewise, under
standard conditions, graphite is the most stable form of carbon. Therefore, it is used in thermochemistry as the
standard state for defining the
heat of formation of carbon compounds.
Graphite
conducts electricity, due to
delocalization of the
pi bondelectrons above and below the planes of the carbon atoms. These electrons are free to move, so are able to conduct electricity. However, the electricity is only conducted along the plane of the layers. In diamond, all four outer electrons of each carbon atom are 'localized' between the atoms in covalent bonding. The movement of electrons is restricted and diamond does not conduct an electric current. In graphite, each carbon atom uses only 3 of its 4 outer energy level electrons in covalently bonding to three other carbon atoms in a plane. Each carbon atom contributes one electron to a delocalized system of electrons that is also a part of the chemical bonding. The delocalized electrons are free to move throughout the plane. For this reason, graphite conducts electricity along the planes of carbon atoms, but does not conduct electricity in a direction at right angles to the plane.
Graphite powder is used as a dry
lubricant. Although it might be thought that this industrially important property is due entirely to the
loose interlamellar coupling between sheets in the structure, in fact in a
vacuum environment (such as in technologies for use in
space), graphite was found to be a very poor lubricant. This fact led to the discovery that graphite's lubricity is due to
adsorbed air and water between the layers, unlike other layered dry lubricants such as
molybdenum disulfide. Recent studies suggest that an effect called
superlubricity can also account for this effect.
When a large number of crystallographic defects (physical) bind these planes together, graphite loses its lubrication properties and becomes
pyrolytic carbon, a useful material in blood-contacting implants such as
prostheticheart valves.
Graphite is the most stable allotrope of carbon. Contrary to popular belief, high-purity graphite does not readily burn, even at elevated temperatures.[8] For this reason, it is used in
nuclear reactors and for high-temperature crucibles for melting metals.[9] At very high temperatures and pressures (roughly 2000 °C and 5 GPa), it can be transformed into diamond.[citation needed]
Natural and crystalline graphites are not often used in pure form as structural materials due to their shear-planes, brittleness and inconsistent mechanical properties.
Intumescent or expandable graphites are used in fire seals, fitted around the perimeter of a fire door. During a fire the graphite intumesces (expands and chars) to resist fire penetration and prevent the spread of fumes. A typical start expansion temperature (SET) is between 150 and 300 °C.
Graphite's specific gravity is 2.3, which makes it less dense than diamond.
Graphite is slightly more reactive than diamond. This is because the reactants are able to penetrate between the hexagonal layers of carbon atoms in graphite. It is unaffected by ordinary solvents, dilute acids, or fused alkalis. However,
chromic acid oxidizes it to carbon dioxide.
A single layer of graphite is called
graphene and has extraordinary electrical, thermal, and physical properties. It can be produced by
epitaxy on an insulating or conducting substrate or by mechanical exfoliation (repeated peeling) from graphite. Its applications may include replacing
silicon in high-performance electronic devices. With two layers stacked,
bilayer graphene results with different properties.
Lonsdaleite (hexagonal diamond)
Lonsdaleite is an allotrope sometimes called "
hexagonal diamond", formed from
graphite present in
meteorites upon their impact on the earth. The great heat and pressure of the impact transforms the graphite into a denser form similar to diamond but retaining graphite's hexagonal
crystal lattice. "Hexagonal diamond" has also been synthesized in the laboratory, by compressing and heating graphite either in a static press or using explosives. It can also be produced by the thermal decomposition of a polymer,
poly(hydridocarbyne), at atmospheric pressure, under inert gas atmosphere (e.g. argon, nitrogen), starting at temperature 110 °C (230 °F).[10][11][12]
Graphenylene
Graphenylene[13] is a single layer carbon material with
biphenylene-like subunits as basis in its hexagonal lattice structure. It is also known as biphenylene-carbon.
Carbophene
Carbophene is a 2 dimensional
covalent organic framework.[14] 4-6 carbophene has been synthesized from 1-3-5
trihydroxybenzene. It consists of 4-carbon and 6-carbon rings in 1:1 ratio. The angles between the three σ-bonds of the orbitals are approximately 120°, 90°, and 150°.[15]
AA'-graphite
AA'-graphite is an allotrope of carbon similar to graphite, but where the layers are positioned differently to each other as compared to the order in graphite.
Diamane
Diamane is a 2D form of diamond. It can be made via high pressures, but without that pressure, the material reverts to graphene. Another technique is to add hydrogen atoms, but those bonds are weak. Using fluorine (xenon-difluoride) instead brings the layers closer together, strengthening the bonds. This is called f-diamane.[16]
Amorphous carbon is the name used for
carbon that does not have any
crystalline structure. As with all
glassy materials, some short-range order can be observed, but there is no long-range pattern of atomic positions. While entirely amorphous carbon can be produced, most amorphous carbon contains microscopic crystals of
graphite-like,[17] or even
diamond-like carbon.[18]
Coal and
soot or
carbon black are informally called amorphous carbon. However, they are products of
pyrolysis (the process of decomposing a substance by the action of heat), which does not produce true amorphous carbon under normal conditions.
The buckminsterfullerenes, or usually just fullerenes or buckyballs for short, were discovered in 1985 by a team of scientists from Rice University and the University of Sussex, three of whom were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. They are named for the resemblance to the geodesic structures devised by
Richard Buckminster "Bucky" Fuller. Fullerenes are positively curved molecules of varying sizes composed entirely of carbon, which take the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube (the C60 version has the same form as a traditional stitched soccer ball).
As of the early twenty-first century, the chemical and physical properties of fullerenes are still under heavy study, in both pure and applied research labs. In April 2003, fullerenes were under study for potential medicinal use — binding specific antibiotics to the structure to target resistant bacteria and even target certain cancer cells such as melanoma.
Carbon nanotubes, also called buckytubes, are cylindrical
carbonmolecules with novel properties that make them potentially useful in a wide variety of applications (e.g., nano-electronics,
optics,
materials applications, etc.). They exhibit extraordinary strength, unique
electrical properties, and are efficient conductors of
heat.
Non-carbon nanotubes have also been synthesized.
Carbon nanotubes are a members of the
fullerene structural family, which also includes
buckyballs. Whereas buckyballs are
spherical in shape, a nanotube is
cylindrical, with at least one end typically capped with a hemisphere of the buckyball structure. Their name is derived from their size, since the diameter of a nanotube is on the order of a few
nanometers (approximately 50,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair), while they can be up to several centimeters in length. There are two main types of nanotubes:
single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and
multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs).
Carbon nanobuds are a newly discovered allotrope of
carbon in which
fullerene like "buds" are covalently attached to the outer sidewalls of the
carbon nanotubes. This hybrid material has useful properties of both fullerenes and carbon nanotubes. For instance, they have been found to be exceptionally good
field emitters.
Schwarzites
Schwarzites are negatively curved carbon surfaces originally proposed by decorating
triply periodic minimal surfaces with carbon atoms. The
geometric topology of the structure is determined by the presence of ring defects, such as heptagons and octagons, to
graphene's hexagonal lattice.[19]
(Negative
curvature bends surfaces outwards like a saddle rather than bending inwards like a sphere.)
Recent work has proposed zeolite-templated carbons (ZTCs) may be schwarzites. The name, ZTC, derives from their origin inside the pores of
zeolites, crystalline
silicon dioxide minerals. A vapor of carbon-containing molecules is injected into the zeolite, where the carbon gathers on the pores' walls, creating the negative curve. Dissolving the zeolite leaves the carbon. A team generated structures by decorating the pores of a zeolite with carbon through a
Monte Carlo method. Some of the resulting models resemble schwarzite-like structures.[20]
Glassy carbon or vitreous carbon is a class of non-graphitizing
carbon widely used as an electrode material in
electrochemistry, as well as for high-temperature crucibles and as a component of some prosthetic devices.
It was first produced by Bernard Redfern in the mid-1950s at the laboratories of The Carborundum Company, Manchester, UK. He had set out to develop a polymer matrix to mirror a diamond structure and discovered a resole (phenolic) resin that would, with special preparation, set without a catalyst. Using this resin, the first glassy carbon was produced.
The preparation of glassy carbon involves subjecting the organic precursors to a series of heat treatments at temperatures up to 3000 °C. Unlike many non-graphitizing carbons, they are impermeable to gases and are chemically extremely inert, especially those prepared at very high temperatures. It has been demonstrated that the rates of oxidation of certain glassy carbons in oxygen, carbon dioxide or water vapor are lower than those of any other carbon. They are also highly resistant to attack by acids. Thus, while normal
graphite is reduced to a powder by a mixture of concentrated sulfuric and nitric acids at room temperature, glassy carbon is unaffected by such treatment, even after several months.
Carbon nanofoam is the fifth known allotrope of carbon, discovered in 1997 by
Andrei V. Rode and co-workers at the
Australian National University in
Canberra. It consists of a low-density cluster-assembly of carbon atoms strung together in a loose three-dimensional web.
Each cluster is about 6 nanometers wide and consists of about 4000 carbon
atoms linked in
graphite-like sheets that are given negative curvature by the inclusion of
heptagons among the regular
hexagonal pattern. This is the opposite of what happens in the case of
buckminsterfullerenes, in which carbon sheets are given positive curvature by the inclusion of
pentagons.
The large-scale structure of carbon nanofoam is similar to that of an
aerogel, but with 1% of the density of previously produced
carbon aerogels – only a few times the density of
air at
sea level. Unlike carbon aerogels, carbon nanofoam is a poor
electrical conductor.
Carbide-derived carbon (CDC) is a family of carbon materials with different surface geometries and carbon ordering that are produced via selective removal of metals from metal carbide precursors, such as TiC, SiC, Ti3AlC2, Mo2C, etc. This synthesis is accomplished using chlorine treatment, hydrothermal synthesis, or high-temperature selective metal desorption under vacuum. Depending on the synthesis method, carbide precursor, and reaction parameters, multiple carbon allotropes can be achieved, including endohedral particles composed of predominantly amorphous carbon, carbon nanotubes, epitaxial graphene, nanocrystalline diamond, onion-like carbon, and graphitic ribbons, barrels, and horns. These structures exhibit high porosity and specific surface areas, with highly tunable pore diameters, making them promising materials for supercapacitor-based energy storage, water filtration and capacitive desalinization, catalyst support, and cytokine removal.[21]
Other metastable carbon phases, some diamondlike, have been produced from reactions of SiC or CH3SiCl3 with CF4.[22]
Many other allotropes have been hypothesized but have yet to be synthesized.
bcc-carbon: At ultrahigh pressures of above 1000 GPa, diamond is predicted to transform into a
body-centered cubic structure. This phase has importance in astrophysics and deep interiors of planets like
Uranus and
Neptune. Various structures have been proposed. Superdense and superhard material resembling this phase was synthesized and published in 1979 and reported to have the Im3space group with eight atoms per primitive unit cell (16 atoms per conventional unit cell).[24] Claims were made that the so-called C8 structure had been synthesized, having eight-carbon cubes similar to
cubane in the Im3m space group, with eight atoms per primitive unit cell, or 16 atoms per conventional unit cell (also called supercubane, see illustration to the right). But a paper in 1988 claimed that a better theory was that the structure was the same as that of an allotrope of
silicon called Si-III or γ-silicon, the so-called BC8 structure with space group Ia3 and 8 atoms per primitive unit cell (16 atoms per conventional unit cell).[25][26] In 2008 it was reported that the cubane-like structure had been identified.[27][28] A paper in 2012 considered four proposed structures, the supercubane structure, the BC8 structure, a structure with clusters of four carbon atoms in tetrahedra in space group I43m having four atoms per primitive unit cell (eight per conventional unit cell), and a structure the authors called "carbon
sodalite". They found in favor of this carbon sodalite structure, with a calculated density of 2.927 g/cm3, shown in the upper left of the illustration under the abstract.[29] This structure has just six atoms per primitive unit cell (twelve per conventional unit cell). The carbon atoms are in the same locations as the silicon and aluminum atoms of the mineral sodalite. The space group, I43m, is the same as the fully expanded form of sodalite would have if sodalite had just silicon or just aluminum.[30]
bct-carbon: Body-centered tetragonal carbon was proposed by theorists in 2010.[31][32]
Chaoite is a mineral believed to have been formed in meteorite impacts. It has been described as slightly harder than graphite with a reflection color of grey to white. However, the existence of carbyne phases is disputed – see the article on
chaoite for details.
D-carbon: D-carbon was proposed by theorists in 2018.[33] D-carbon is an orthorhombic sp3 carbon allotrope (6 atoms per cell). Total-energy calculations demonstrate that D-carbon is energetically more favorable than the previously proposed T6 structure (with 6 atoms per cell) as well as many others.
Haeckelites: Ordered arrangements of pentagons, hexagons, and heptagons which can either be flat or tubular.
The Laves graph or K4 crystal is a theoretically predicted three-dimensional crystalline metastable carbon structure in which each carbon atom is bonded to three others, at 120° angles (like graphite), but where the bond planes of adjacent layers lie at an angle of 70.5°, rather than coinciding.[34][35]
M-carbon: Monoclinic C-centered carbon is thought to have been first created in 1963 by compressing graphite at room temperature. Its structure was theorized in 2006,[36] then in 2009 it was related to those experimental observations.[37] Many structural candidates, including bct-carbon, were proposed to be equally compatible with experimental data available at the time, until in 2012 it was shown theoretically that this structure is kinetically the most likely to form from graphite.[38][39] High-resolution data appeared shortly after, demonstrating that among all structure candidates only M-carbon is compatible with experiment.[40][41]
Metallic carbon: Theoretical studies have shown that there are regions in the
phase diagram, at extremely high pressures, where carbon has metallic character.[42] Laser shock experiments and theory indicate that above 600 GPa liquid carbon is metallic.[43]
Novamene: A combination of both hexagonal diamond and sp2 hexagons as in graphene.[44]
Phagraphene: Graphene-like allotrope with distorted Dirac cones.
Protomene: A hexagonal crystal structure with a fully relaxed primitive cell involving 48 atoms. Out of these, 12 atoms have the potential to switch hybridization between sp2 and sp3, forming dimers.[46]
T-carbon: Every carbon atom in diamond is replaced with a carbon tetrahedron (hence 'T-carbon'). This was proposed by theorists in 1985.[48]
There is evidence that
white dwarf stars have a core of crystallized carbon and oxygen nuclei. The largest of these found in the universe so far,
BPM 37093, is located 50 light-years (4.7×1014 km) away in the constellation
Centaurus. A news release from the
Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics described the 2,500-mile (4,000 km)-wide stellar core as a diamond,[49] and it was named as Lucy, after the Beatles' song "Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds";[50] however, it is more likely an exotic form of carbon.
Penta-graphene is a predicted carbon allotrope that utilizes the Cairo pentagonal tiling.
U carbon is predicted to consist of corrugated layers tiled with six- or 12-atom rings, linked by covalent bonds. Notably, it can be harder than
steel, as conductive as stainless steel, highly reflective and
ferromagnetic, behaving as a
permanent magnet at temperatures up to 125 °C.[51]
Zayedene: A combination of linear sp carbon chains and sp3 bulk carbon. The structure of these crystalline carbon allotropes consists of sp chains inserted in cylindrical cavities periodically arranged in hexagonal diamond (lonsdaleite).[52][53]
Variability of carbon
The system of carbon allotropes spans an astounding range of extremes, considering that they are all merely structural formations of the same element.
Diamond is clear and transparent, but graphite is black and opaque.
Diamond is the hardest mineral known (10 on the
Mohs scale), but graphite is one of the softest (1–2 on
Mohs scale).
Diamond is the ultimate abrasive, but graphite is soft and is a very good lubricant.
Diamond is an excellent electrical insulator, but graphite is an excellent conductor.
Diamond is an excellent thermal conductor, but some forms of graphite are used for thermal insulation (for example heat shields and firebreaks).
At standard temperature and pressure, graphite is the thermodynamically stable form. Thus diamonds do not exist forever. The conversion from diamond to graphite, however, has a very high
activation energy and is therefore extremely slow.
Despite the hardness of diamonds, the chemical bonds that hold the carbon atoms in diamonds together are actually weaker than those that hold together graphite. The difference is that in diamond, the bonds form an inflexible three-dimensional lattice. In graphite, the atoms are tightly bonded into sheets, but the sheets can slide easily over each other, making graphite soft.[54]
^Bundy, P.; Bassett, W. A.; Weathers, M. S.; Hemley, R. J.; Mao, H. K.; Goncharov, A. F. (1996). "The pressure-temperature phase and transformation diagram for carbon; updated through 1994". Carbon. 34 (2): 141–153.
Bibcode:
1996Carbo..34..141B.
doi:
10.1016/0008-6223(96)00170-4.
^Wang, C. X.; Yang, G. W. (2012). "Thermodynamic and kinetic approaches of diamond and related nanomaterials formed by laser ablation in liquid". In Yang, Guowei (ed.). Laser ablation in liquids: principles and applications in the preparation of nanomaterials. Pan Stanford Pub. pp. 164–165.
ISBN978-981-4241-52-6.
^"Crucibles". Artisanfoundry.co.uk. Artisan Foundry Shop. Retrieved October 22, 2015.
^
Bianconi, P.; Joray, Scott J.; Aldrich, Brian L.; Sumranjit, Jitapa; Duffy, Daniel J.; Long, David P.; et al. (2004). "Diamond and diamond-like carbon from a preceramic polymer". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 126 (10): 3191–3202.
doi:
10.1021/ja039254l.
PMID15012149.
^
Nur, Yusuf; Pitcher, Michael; Seyyidoğlu, Semih; Toppare, Levent (2008). "Facile Synthesis of Poly(hydridocarbyne): A Precursor to Diamond and Diamond-like Ceramics". Journal of Macromolecular Science, Part A. 45 (5): 358.
doi:
10.1080/10601320801946108.
S2CID93635541.
^
Nur, Yusuf; Cengiz, Halime M.; Pitcher, Michael W.; Toppare, Levent K. (2009). "Electrochemical polymerizatıon of hexachloroethane to form poly(hydridocarbyne): A pre-ceramic polymer for diamond production". Journal of Materials Science. 44 (11): 2774.
Bibcode:
2009JMatS..44.2774N.
doi:
10.1007/s10853-009-3364-4.
S2CID97604277.
^
Presser, Volker; Heon, Min; Gogotsi, Yury (2011). "Carbide-derived carbons – from porous networks to nanotubes and graphene". Advanced Functional Materials. 21 (5): 810–833.
doi:
10.1002/adfm.201002094.
S2CID96797238.
^
Holcombe Jr., C.E.; Condon, J.B.; Johnson, D.H. (1978). "Metastable Carbon Phases from CF4 Reactions: Part I – Reactions with SiC and Si; Part II - Reactions with CH3SiCl3". High Temperature Science. 10: 183–210.
^
Matyushenko, N.N.; Strel'nitsky, V.E.; Gusev, V.A. (1979).
"A dense new version of crystalline carbon Cs". JETP Letters (Письма в ЖЭТФ). 30 (4) (issues online ed.). American Institute of Physics (English ed.): 199. Archived from
the original on March 5, 2016 – via www.jetpletters.ac.ru.
^
Johnston, Roy L.; Hoffmann, Roald (1989). "Superdense carbon, C8: supercubane or analog of .gamma.-silicon?". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 111 (3): 810.
doi:
10.1021/ja00185a004.
^Stewart Clark (1994).
"Internal Structure of BC8 and ST12". Complex Structure in Tetrahedral Semiconductors (PhD thesis) – via University of Durham.
^
Burdett, Jeremy K.; Lee, Stephen (May 1985). "Moments method and elemental structures". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 107 (11): 3063–3082.
doi:
10.1021/ja00297a011.